How Do You Review Credibility With an Interpreter in a Qualitative Study

• Correspondence
• Open up Access
• Published: 10 July 2008

Language and rigour in qualitative research: Problems and principles in analyzing data nerveless in Mandarin

BMC Medical Research Methodology volume viii, Article number:44 (2008) Cite this article

• 20k Accesses

• 51 Citations

• five Altmetric

• Metrics details

Abstract

In collaborative qualitative research in Asia, data are ordinarily nerveless in the national language, and this poses challenges for analysis. Translation of transcripts to a linguistic communication common to the whole inquiry squad is time consuming and expensive; meaning tin easily be lost in translation; and validity of the information may be compromised in this process. We draw on several published examples from public health research conducted in mainland Mainland china, to highlight how language tin can influence rigour in the qualitative research process; for each problem we suggest potential solutions based on the methods used in one of our enquiry projects in Mainland china.

Problems we have encountered include obtaining sufficient depth and detail in qualitative data; deciding on linguistic communication for data collection; managing information nerveless in Mandarin; and the influence of linguistic communication on interpreting meaning.

We have suggested methods for overcoming bug associated with collecting, analysing, and interpreting qualitative information in a local language, that we think help maintain analytical openness in collaborative qualitative research. We developed these methods specifically in research conducted in Mandarin in mainland China; simply they need further testing in other countries with data collected in other languages. Examples from other researchers are needed.

Peer Review reports

Background

In collaborative qualitative enquiry in Asia, data are usually collected in the national language, and this poses challenges for analysis. [one] Translation of transcripts to a language common to the whole research team costs time and coin; and meaning is hands distorted or lost in translation: in some languages and dialects in that location are literally no direct translations for some words and for other words several meanings can be assigned [2]. These problems are accentuated in qualitative studies carried out in mainland China, in collaboration with people for whom English is their first linguistic communication, to be published in international English language journals. The grammatical structure of Standard mandarin differs substantially to English language which means the narrative of an interview might not be captured accurately [3, 4].

We have encountered several problems to do with language when collecting, analysing and reporting data in Mandarin. In this paper nosotros use examples from several published research papers to illustrate the challenges posed; in item nosotros focus on the implications of linguistic communication and estimation on rigour in qualitative research. We propose possible solutions to these problems, based on sound methodological principles that we have used in our subsequent research to help maintain rigour in the research procedure.

To illustrate the potential solutions nosotros depict on specific examples from a descriptive study of directly observed therapy for administration of TB drugs to outpatients in the community in Chongqing Municipality; the findings are published elsewhere and ethics blessing was granted past Chongqing Medical University[5]. The study aimed to place ways that the TB health service commitment could be improved. Nosotros employed mixed methods: a survey to measure the level of direct observation by wellness workers, health facility patient record analysis to estimate treatment completion rates, and qualitative methods to explore patient and provider views on factors influencing adherence. For the qualitative component we conducted in-depth interviews in Mandarin to find out from patients and doctors almost reported adherence, their views on straight observation, and factors that might influence adherence. Our research was directly relevant to the TB command program in China, so we used the principles of Framework analysis [6], commonly used for applied or policy relevant qualitative research where the questions are clearly defined and objectives are set in advance. Framework is a systematic matrix based approach with distinct stages that allow transparent information management and interpretation. As with any qualitative analysis approach, the traditionally manual processes of information reduction (coding, searching, retrieving and sorting information) can exist facilitated past using specialist software. We decided to use MAXqda to manage our information because most squad members were experienced in using the software, and it is possible to import transcripts in Chinese characters (on computers with Chinese language support installed). Our research team comprised two social scientists (1 with qualitative expertise), a postgraduate public health student, a medically trained tuberculosis skillful, a statistician and a medically trained epidemiologist.

In the next section we draw four specific problems we take encountered conducting qualitative health inquiry in mainland China, and for each problem we suggest potential solutions.

Depth and item in qualitative data

Problems

Collecting qualitative data using individual interviews or focus group discussions requires considerable skill; besides picayune management and the participant will digress creating a loftier 'dross rate'[iv]; inquire likewise many curt prompting questions and the interview turns into a structured questionnaire. Problems with question structure and catamenia, apply of prompts, probes, 'directiveness' and non verbal feedback can unremarkably be addressed through pilot testing and careful interviewing technique [7, 8].

But there are special cultural issues to consider when conducting qualitative research in mainland People's republic of china. For instance, sure population groups are more likely to resist a researcher's prompt for detail and personal experiences. In a recent evaluation of a workplace intervention to provide family planning services to migrant workers in Shanghai, we found qualitative interviews yielded brusque responses that lacked depth and item and interviewers found it difficult to encourage open up dialogue [9]. In postal service-research debriefing discussions, the research team agreed that there could be several reasons for this. Nearly of import was an appreciation of the unique circumstances of the participant – in this instance young, single female migrants who are considered a marginalised population in host cities – was crucial to understanding the reasons why they chose not to express their views openly. The squad also considered that the prevailing civilisation of courtesy in mainland China may have prevented participants from existence openly critical most people or services, particularly those in authority; this has been documented elsewhere in Asia [ten]. This means that participants may suit to socially expected behaviour rather than disclose personal viewpoints [11].

Suggested solutions

To help ensure our interviews yielded rich and detailed data, in our subsequent TB research nosotros paid particular attention to the evolution and pilot testing of topic guides. We jointly adult topic guides in English language for in depth interviews. This allowed for specialist input to the structure of the interviews, ensured relevant topic areas were covered, and that the types of questions asked were suitable for the target population. Topic guides were translated and pilot tested in Mandarin, Southwest dialect (a variant of standard Standard mandarin with different pronunciation). The interviewer was a postgraduate student from Chongqing and fluent in Southwest dialect.

An English language speaking social scientist observed the bear of the pilot interviews, with some simultaneous translation. This immune for useful feedback on the utilise of probing questions and prompts to facilitate the conversation, observation of body language and active listening. The pilot interview recordings were transcribed in Mandarin, and to ensure transcript quality, the showtime few were translated and checked past the social scientists in the team. A brief 'eyeballing' of a transcript in any language where questions and responses are clearly marked can ordinarily detect the remainder of narrative betwixt interviewer and interviewee, pick upwardly on short responses and lack of probing, and sometimes identify where leading questions have been used.

It is hard to negate the cultural barriers to open dialogue with interview participants in Mainland china. Almost participants are naturally hesitant about sharing opinions, even more so when the interviewer probes for details about sensitive issues, such as disease. The patients interviewed as role of our written report were at various stages of treatment for agile tuberculosis, and some were initially unwilling to talk about their illness experience. We found that a practiced arroyo was to take fourth dimension to build upwards trust with the participant, and de-personalise the questions so that participants felt they were not necessarily talking most themselves when they responded. As the student interviewer gained confidence in using these and probing and prompting questions, we institute patients were more probable to discuss issues important to them in adhering to TB treatment; the resulting transcripts provided a rich and detailed narrative.

Language and data collection

Problems

The use of interpreters in international public health research is advocated past some, and different models are proposed for conducting interviews in this way [12]; but the impact of the interpreter on the research procedure needs consideration. Having an interpreter translate the researcher'south questions straight tin can interrupt the flow of chat and be distracting for the respondent and interviewer; while a more active model that allows the interpreter to deport out the interview means the researcher must relinquish control of the interview. In some cross-national research, 'tactical sampling' is employed to actively seek out key informants able to converse in English; researchers claim this avoids problems with interpretation, translation and miscommunication [1].

Simultaneous translation during interviews or focus group discussions can work where infrastructure allows for real time translation [13]; but this is dependent on the translator's skill and knowledge of the local dialect of the study population. An culling is to translate all transcripts into a linguistic communication common to the whole squad after data is collected, merely the risk of misinterpretation, misunderstanding and loss of a respondent's intended meaning is high unless the translator is familiar plenty with the dialect to convey 'conceptual equivalence'[one]. This refers to the extent to which a term used in ane language has a comparable meaning when translated into another language. Conceptual equivalence is particularly important in qualitative research collected in Mandarin, where some words have no linguistic equivalent in English language or have more than one meaning [two]. Decisions made well-nigh translation can straight affect the accuracy of data collected and the validity of the research reported; researchers are therefore increasingly being encouraged to explicate how translation was carried out, by whom, and how local meaning and cultural connotations are captured and reported in their data [14].

Suggested solutions

One way to avert problems of estimation and ensure accurate pregnant is captured during data collection is to behave interviews and focus grouping discussions in the local language; this is profoundly facilitated in a enquiry team comprising bilingual researchers fluent in the local language (and dialect). Original words, phrases and concepts are securely embedded in context and the gamble of misinterpretation and loss of participants' intended pregnant is minimised. In our study, qualitative interviews were carried out by a postgraduate educatee fluent in Southwest dialect, and tape recorded with participant's permission. Recordings were transcribed verbatim in Chinese characters. Two Mandarin speaking researchers checked a sub-sample of transcripts against the original tape recordings to ensure local meanings were captured as far as possible.

Managing data in Mandarin

Problems

Important decisions during qualitative data analysis include: which sections of text to code, which data to recollect and how, what search terms to apply to explore the dataset, deciding which themes appear most important in understanding and explaining the phenomenon existence studied, and how to explore and display relationships betwixt themes. Traditional manual methods of cut and paste, filing and sorting of textual information tin can exist boring to execute and difficult to describe accurately. When working as a team and with data beyond languages, we have found it is fifty-fifty more crucial to determine who is responsible for each component of the assay.

In applied qualitative enquiry it is important that the thematic framework used to code or index transcripts is informed by both the original topic guides and concepts emerging straight from the participants themselves. Identifying an initial coding frame requires researcher skill in pinpointing recurring themes and concepts, and developing meaningful labels for the data. When data are nerveless in a local language, those team members who are not fluent in this language are excluded from this process. On the other paw, collaborative working at this phase tin prevent a profusion of inappropriate codes and arbitrary generation of emergent themes [15].

Teams working together across languages use various procedures to facilitate analysis – sometimes coding is completed in the local linguistic communication and English language summaries are provided for the whole squad [sixteen], others working with translated data may code and analyse all data in English [17]. In previous research in Communist china we have used combinations of both, but normally where time is short the data coding, categorisation and identification of themes is washed manually and in Mandarin, with discussion of of import content of themes aided past English language summaries [18]. We have constitute that in using these approaches information technology is difficult keep track of decisions made during the analysis, and even more than difficult to describe exactly how it was done. Disclosure of qualitative analysis procedures is increasingly of import [nineteen], and 'audit' or 'decision' trails can assistance other researchers' judge for themselves whether the findings and interpretations are apparent [xx]. There is increasing recognition that computer software packages can assistance certificate these decisions, and ensure the processes of data reduction are visible, documented, retrievable and attainable [21].

Suggested solutions

Based on our experience in the research with TB patients and providers, we recommend the coding framework is developed in the local linguistic communication by more than one researcher, and is later on made available and discussed in a language mutual to the research team (in this case English). In our written report, two bilingual researchers read through the Mandarin transcripts and independently listed recurring viewpoints relevant to the areas of questioning, and identified common themes emerging from the responses. Doing this independently immune for more than possibilities and ideas about relevant and meaningful code words. Consensus on a final thematic framework was reached through discussion.

We established a coding organisation in MAXqda based on the thematic framework. At the time the version of MAXqda we used (version 2) allowed transcripts to be imported in Mandarin, but did not support direct text input using Chinese characters, and so the coding system had to exist set upwards in English. Figure 1 shows a screenshot of MAXqda with a list of imported transcripts, the code arrangement in English language, and a transcript with coded segments.

Figure ane

Screenshot of MAXqda.

Full size image

We quickly realised the reward of having the coding organization in English; whatever refinement of the thematic framework could easily exist discussed by the whole team, and this facilitated joint decision making between bilingual and English speaking researchers on the categorisation of coded information. The thematic framework and codes were modified and added to as other important problems and viewpoints emerged. The end product was a single database containing all coded interviews (using English language labels every bit shown in figure one) that could exist viewed and accessed by the whole team.

Making sense of qualitative data requires systematic re-organization and ordering of data chunks, allocating meaning and detecting patterns. MAXqda offers several tools for browsing and searching coded segments of text, which we constitute useful when working collaboratively across languages. In our study, a bilingual and an English speaking researcher explored the entire dataset by showtime using the 'code matrix browser' (see figure ii). This shows the frequency of use of codes across selected interviews; the size of the square shows how oft the code was applied. Despite the English speaking researcher non being able to familiarise herself with the original data and the actual statements made by participants, this matrix helped both researchers determine and discuss which concepts were mutual across interviews, and identify codes that were used infrequently. We also browsed the data using the 'code relation browser', a matrix showing the concurrent employ of codes. This helped identify where like concepts were discussed together and where two or more codes could be complanate into an overarching category.

Effigy 2

Code matrix browser.

Full size image

Language and interpreting significant

Problems

Working in teams to conduct qualitative research can increase rigor in analysis and encourage richer interpretation [22], but there are few examples of how teams working over geographic, cultural and linguistic altitude actually accomplish this. Social scientists will ofttimes recognise different patterns, meanings and interpretation in qualitative information to disease experts or epidemiologists, and local researchers are more than likely to be familiar with the intricacies of the health arrangement and socio-cultural characteristics of participants than those from outside. Bringing these differing perspectives to conduct on emerging conceptual frameworks and explanations helps ensure the findings are grounded in and supported by the information and accurate underlying meaning (and conceptual equivalence) is conveyed.

Information technology is our experience from previous research in communist china that recognising patterns and beingness able to interpret the data accurately tin can be the virtually challenging part of the procedure and can involve lengthy discussion about the meaning of informant accounts. For example, in a qualitative study exploring women's views of obstetric care in government hospitals in Shanghai we constitute that traditional beliefs influenced women'southward decisions to avoid Caesarean department as it would harm their 'yuan qi'. There is no English equivalent of 'yuan qi', which refers to inherited energy of the torso. We consulted together equally a research squad to make certain the meaning of women's statements was clear and non misinterpreted in the English write upwardly [23]. Similarly, in the study of young female migrants' views of family planning services, a main theme was related to privacy in obtaining services [9]. Interviewees frequently used the term 'bu hao yi si'; again at that place is no literal translation but, afterwards much discussion virtually the advisable significant in English, we agreed to refer to information technology equally 'feeling uncomfortable or embarrassed', and quoted the Standard mandarin phrase in the concluding publication.

The conclusion to publish in a local or international journal is dependent on the research question, funding requirements and judgements about the policy and practice implications of the research. Publication in a language other than that which the data were collected and analysed clearly affects the researcher's power to accurately convey the meaning of the data, peculiarly through verbatim quotes; and some argue that translation of direct quotations conceals culturally-loaded meanings [1]. These are decisions an international collaborative inquiry team must consider.

Suggested solutions

Data estimation is oft described as an intuitive and imaginative process which cannot be reduced to simple mechanical steps [24], simply we institute this process can be more critical, the interpretations more valid, and the findings more credible, past involving researchers with a) different methodological perspectives and disciplinary interests, b) detailed understanding of the study context including the cultural characteristics of participants and the structure of the health system, and c) the ability to accurately convey meaning of data collected in a local language. The process of seeing patterns in qualitative data and drawing out meaning is made more than thorough by involving the unabridged research team, taking advantage of their differing disciplinary, language and cultural perspectives. In our study of TB treatment in Chongqing, we established a organisation that enabled this.

After identifying categories of data, we summarised data relevant to each category in a matrix by case, using translated extracts and direct quotes in English. A bilingual postgraduate student, who also conducted the interviews, translated the extracts and quotes, and these were independently translated by a bilingual social scientist; any disagreements were resolved by discussion or involvement of another bilingual researcher. These English language summaries formed the basis of discussions well-nigh patterns in the data, comparisons of individual accounts and experiences, and culling plausible explanations of the themes. For each of the categories, English and bilingual researchers looked across the information and explored the range of attitudes and experiences of sub-groups (i.east patients and doctors, male person and female person, new and re-treated patients, and across counties). One surprising and important upshot of these discussions was being able to clarify that patient reports of expensive treatment costs did not refer to the cost of anti-tuberculosis treatment (which is provided for complimentary), only to the cost of additional traditional Chinese medicines.

The literature relating to rigor in qualitative research suggests researchers should display enough data to allow a judgement on whether the interpretations are supported by the data and the conclusions are justified [fifteen, 25]. Our research on TB was written upwardly as a policy brief for circulation in Red china and in English language for an international peer reviewed journal. We used verbatim quotes in Mandarin together with English translations to illustrate the significant of each main theme so that Standard mandarin and English speaking readers could judge for themselves the credibility of our interpretations and research findings [5].

Discussion

Descriptive qualitative analysis is an iterative process, with the aim of meaningfully re-classifying codes into categories and themes. Published examples of qualitative research conducted in local languages sometimes exercise non draw the assay procedure adequately; it is often difficult to discern in what language data were analysed, how coding frames were developed and codes derived, and how consensus was reached on analysis and interpretation. Some researchers devise their own ways of assuring data quality, analysing data in the local language using translated summaries of relevant text extracts [26], and we believe these should be fabricated explicit.

We have described methods we used that allowed u.s. to collect detailed qualitative data in Mandarin, manage that data effectively, produce plausible data categories and make it at a meaningful estimation of our data. This level of teamwork across languages was made possible by using a matrix based approach that allowed each stage of the analysis to remain visible to all researchers, and software that facilitated browsing and retrieval of relevant data. We are enlightened that these may not be the just solutions to the bug highlighted in this paper, and obstacles remain fifty-fifty within our proposed methods.

We found qualitative assay software useful for keeping track of decisions made during analysis and for sharing the project coding and categorisation betwixt the whole team. We are aware that there are limitations with nearly software packages, for example, the language restrictions in MAXqda (version ii) meant we underutilised the text search functions bachelor. All the same, we are aware that the most recent version (MAXqda2007) and other software programmes such as NVivo seven at present support coding and searching in any linguistic communication including Unicode [27] character languages such as Chinese. Nosotros developed data matrices and charts using Microsoft Discussion, just MAXqda2007 now includes a facility to construct data matrices, tables and other visual models [28]. In improver, the founders of the Framework approach, the National middle for Social Research, have just launched their own software with matrix capabilities, specifically for use aslope the Framework approach [29].

We have that cultural problems may simply be partly responsible for the problems we encountered in obtaining depth and detail in qualitative interviews. Another important consideration is chapters in interviewing technique. Although the use of qualitative data collection methods in public wellness research is growing, medical and public health training in universities in mainland Cathay emphasises epidemiological methods, and qualitative methods receive limited consideration. We believe capacity in qualitative health research volition develop as researchers begin to recognise the contribution of this approach. Amend integration of basic and social science research is needed in wellness systems and health services research, and meliorate collaboration between researchers across cultures is important in achieving this, particularly in countries like Red china. International collaborative programmes present the opportunity to larn research methods expertise and disease specific noesis that can exist applied to public health priorities in prc, and this volition encourage greater participation of Chinese researchers [30]. However, due to the language barrier, cultural differences, and difficulties in applying the research methods across languages, Chinese researchers may confront obstacles to participating in global enquiry programmes, and especially in qualitative wellness research. We recollect the methodological principles outlined in this paper contribute to the growing consensus on acceptable methods for conducting qualitative health inquiry across languages and cultures.

We are aware that in our example we relied on English summaries to course the ground of team discussions about patterns in the data, explanations of themes and interpretation. We emphasise that these translated extracts are to help discussion; often interpreting the data requires the research team returning to individual transcripts to clarify meaning and concepts and brand sure that data categories are reasonable and emerging themes are meaningful. In various research projects we have plant that this stage in the analysis is the most time consuming.

When qualitative research conducted in 1 language is written upward in another (for example in English for publication in international journals) in our feel it makes sense to provide at to the lowest degree some of the data as illustrative quotes in the local language. Depending on the periodical, this may or may not be straightforward. Public health journals whose editors are used to publishing epidemiological inquiry sometimes have restricted give-and-take limits. On the other manus, this tin be easier in journals operating an open access policy, or who publish primarily online, equally they often permit for additional tables or files.

Conclusion

Nosotros have described how language can influence rigour in the qualitative research process, using examples specifically from public health enquiry conducted in mainland China. We take suggested methods for overcoming problems associated with collecting, analysing, and interpreting qualitative data in a local linguistic communication, that we think aid maintain analytical openness in collaborative qualitative research. We developed these methods specifically in inquiry conducted in Standard mandarin in mainland China; they require farther testing and evaluation in other countries with data nerveless in other languages. Nosotros hold that analysis and 'seeing meaning' in qualitative information is inherently collaborative [31], and accept demonstrated where computer software can open the possibilities to do this when working in teams and beyond languages. Examples from other researchers conducting collaborative qualitative inquiry internationally are needed.

References

1. Mangen S: Qualitative research methods in cross-national settings. International Journal of Social Research Methodology. 1999, two (ii): 109-124. ten.1080/136455799295087.

   Commodity  Google Scholar

2. Tsai JH-C, Choe JH, Lim JMC, Acorda E, Chan NL, Taylor 5, Tu S-P: Developing culturally competent health noesis: Issues of information analysis of cross-cultural, cross-language qualitative inquiry. International Journal of Qualitative Methods. 2004, iii (4): ii-14.

   Google Scholar

3. Twinn S: An analysis of the effectiveness of focus groups as a method of qualitative data collection with Chinese populations in nursing research. Periodical of Avant-garde Nursing. 1998, 8 (iii): 654-661. x.1046/j.1365-2648.1998.00708.10.

   Commodity  Google Scholar

4. Twinn S: An exploratory study examining the influence of translation on the validity and reliability of qualitative information in nursing research. Journal of Advanced Nursing. 1997, 6: 418-423. 10.1046/j.1365-2648.1997.1997026418.ten.

   Commodity  Google Scholar

5. Hu D, Liu X, Chen J, Wang Y, Wang T, Zeng W, Smith H, Garner P: Direct observed therapy for tuberculosis in a Province in China: a descriptive study. Wellness Policy & Planning. 2008, three: 43-55.

   Google Scholar

6. Ritchie J, Spencer L, O'Connor West: Carrying out qualitative assay. Qualitative research do. Edited by: Ritchie J, Lewis J. 2004, London: Sage Publications

   Google Scholar

7. Britten N: Qualitative interviews in medical enquiry. British Medical Journal. 1995, 311: 251-53.

   CAS  Article  PubMed  PubMed Key  Google Scholar

8. Hope A, Timmel Due south: Training for transformation: A handbook for community workers. 1984, Harare, Zimbabwe: Mambo press, 2:

   Volume  Google Scholar

9. Qian X, Smith HJ, Huang W, Zhang J, Huang Y, Garner P: Promoting contraceptive use amidst single female migrants in one factory in Shanghai: a pilot workplace intervention. BMC Wellness Services Research. 2007, 7: 77-10.1186/1472-6963-7-77.

   Commodity  PubMed  PubMed Cardinal  Google Scholar

10. Jones East: The courtesy bias in Southeast Asian surveys. Social Research in Developing countries. Edited by: Bulmer Yard, Warwick DP. 1983, London: John Wiley & Sons

    Google Scholar

11. Bin Liang, Hong Lu: Conducting fieldwork in China: Observations on collecting primary information regarding crime, law and the criminal justice arrangement. Journal of Gimmicky Criminal Justice. 2006, ii (2): 157-72.

    Google Scholar

12. Pitchforth E, van Teijlingen E: International public health enquiry involving interpreters: a instance study from Bangladesh. BMC Public Health. 2005, 5: 71-x.1186/1471-2458-five-71.

    Commodity  PubMed  PubMed Fundamental  Google Scholar

13. Esposito N: From significant to meaning: the influence of translation techniques on non-English focus group research. Qualitative Health Enquiry. 2001, 11 (four): 568-579. x.1177/104973201129119217.

    CAS  Commodity  PubMed  Google Scholar

14. Birbili M: Translating from ane language to another. Social Research Update. 2000, accessed 12 May 2008, [http://sru.soc.surrey.ac.uk/SRU31.html]31

    Google Scholar

15. Richards T, Richards L: Using hierarchical categories in qualitative data analysis. Computer Aided Qualitative Data Assay: Theory, Methods and Practices. Edited past: Kelle U. 1995, London: Sage

    Google Scholar

16. Tolhurst R, Zhang T, Yang H, Gao J, Tang S: Factors affecting the implementation of wellness legislation and its impact on the rural poor in China: A case study of implementation of the maternal and infant health care law in two poor counties. Int J Health Plann Mgmt. 2004, 19: 247-265. ten.1002/hpm.761.

    Article  Google Scholar

17. Raven J, Chen Q, Tolhurst R, Garner P: Traditional practices and behavior in the postpartum flow in Fujian province, China: a qualitative study. BMC Pregnancy & Childbirth. 2007, 7: 8-10.1186/1471-2393-7-8.

    Article  Google Scholar

18. Qian 10, Smith H, Liang H, Liang J, Garner P: Prove-informed obstetric practice during normal nascence in China: trends and influences in four hospitals. BMC health Services Research. 2006, vi: 29-ten.1186/1472-6963-6-29.

    Commodity  PubMed  PubMed Primal  Google Scholar

19. Anfara VA, Brown KM, Mangione TL: Qualitative analysis on stage: Making the research process more public. Educational Researcher. 2002, 31 (7): 28-38. ten.3102/0013189X031007028.

    Article  Google Scholar

20. Murphy East, Dingwall R, Greatbatch D, Parker S, Watson P: Qualitative research methods in health technology assessment: a review of the literature. Health Technol Assess. 1998, ii (16): 163-197.

    Google Scholar

21. Basit TN: Manual or electronic: the role of coding in qualitative data analysis. Educational Enquiry. 2003, 45 (2): 143-54. ten.1080/0013188032000133548.

    Article  Google Scholar

22. Barry CA, Britten North, Barber N, Bradley C, Stevenson F: Using reflexivity to optimise teamwork in qualitative research. Qualitative Health Research. 1999, 9 (one): 26-44. 10.1177/104973299129121677.

    CAS  Commodity  PubMed  Google Scholar

23. Xu Qian, Helen Smith, Li Zhou, Ji Liang, Paul Garner: Evidence based obstetrics in four hospitals in Prc: An observational study of women's preferences and provider'south views. BMC Pregnancy & Childbirth. 2001, 1: 1-10.1186/1471-2393-1-1.

    Article  Google Scholar

24. Ritchie J, Lewis J, Eds: Qualitative enquiry practise. 2003, London: Sage publications

    Google Scholar

25. Spencer 50, Ritchie J, Lewis J, Dillon L: Quality in qualitative evaluation: a framework for assessing inquiry show. Government Chief Social Researcher's Office Occasional Papers Series No.two. London: Cabinet Part

26. Tolhurst R, Zhang T, Yang H, Gao J, Tang S: Factors affecting the implementation of health legislation and its impact on the rural poor in China: A case study of implementation of the maternal and infant health intendance law in 2 poor counties. International Journal of Wellness Planning and Management. 2004, xix: 247-265. 10.1002/hpm.761.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar

27. Unicode homepage. accessed 16 June 2006, [http://www.unicode.org/]

28. MAXqda homepage. accessed 16 June 2006, [http://www.maxqda.com/]

29. National Middle for Social Research. accessed March 2008, [http://world wide web.natcen.air-conditioning.uk/natcen/pages/hw_framework.htm#formats]

30. Department for International Development: Cathay: Development research priorities. Report on consultations for DFID's global research strategy 2008–13. accessed 12 May 2008, [http://www.dfid.gov.uk/inquiry/China-Consultation-Report.pdf]

31. Richards Fifty: Qualitative teamwork: Making it work. Qualitative Health Inquiry. 1999, ix (ane): 7-x. 10.1177/104973299129121659.

    Article  Google Scholar

Pre-publication history

• The pre-publication history for this newspaper can exist accessed hither:http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2288/8/44/prepub

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would similar to give thanks Lynn Richards for comments on an earlier draft of this newspaper.

The qualitative research reported in this paper was part of a larger descriptive written report funded by the World Bank/DFID loan projection and the DFID Effective Health Care Research Programme Consortium. The views expressed are not necessarily those of the funding organizations.

This paper was adult from an oral presentation given at the twelfth International Qualitative Wellness Research Conference: Understanding differing perspectives in health and healthcare. Apr 2–5, 2006, The Westin Hotel, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.

Writer information

Affiliations

1. International Health Group, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, UK

   Helen J Smith & Xiaoyun Liu

2. Schoolhouse of Public Health, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, PR People's republic of china

   Jing Chen

3. School of Public Wellness, Fudan University, Shanghai, PR People's republic of china

   Xiaoyun Liu

Corresponding writer

Correspondence to Helen J Smith.

Additional information

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors' contributions

HJS conceived of and wrote the paper in discussion with JC and XL. All authors contributed to the design of data drove tools in the initial research study cited in reference 5. JC collected the data for that study equally part of a Masters thesis, and conducted the analysis with HJS and XL. All authors contributed to revising the final manuscript.

Authors' original submitted files for images

Rights and permissions

This commodity is published under license to BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access commodity distributed under the terms of the Artistic Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/past/2.0), which permits unrestricted utilise, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original piece of work is properly cited.

Reprints and Permissions

Nearly this commodity

Cite this article

Smith, H.J., Chen, J. & Liu, X. Language and rigour in qualitative research: Problems and principles in analyzing data nerveless in Mandarin. BMC Med Res Methodol 8, 44 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-eight-44

Download citation

• Received: 12 October 2007

• Accepted: x July 2008

• Published: ten July 2008

• DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-8-44

Keywords

• Chinese Character
• Local Language
• English language Summary
• Family unit Planning Service
• Public Health Research

mcarthurcathery.blogspot.com

Source: https://bmcmedresmethodol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2288-8-44

Share this post